Postmodernism is a critical perspective or ideology that emerged in the 1960s as a reaction to the modernist worldview that had existed previously. Although there is much deliberation over how to define the theory, there are a few characteristics that are agreed to make a media text postmodern. These include: intertextuality, a sense of style over substance, incredulity towards metanarratives, pastiche, self-awareness, black humour, irony, relativism. By the 1980s, postmodernism was more than a theory, it had become a condition; even now we live in a postmodern world. The case studies I am defining as postmodern are: Blade Runner (Ridley Scott, 1982), Scream (Wes Craven, 1996) and its sequels, Flight of the Conchords (series one episode six, 'Bowie', 2007), Telephone (Jonas Ackerlund, 2010), and Portal (Valve Corporation, 2007).
Blade Runner is a futuristic film noir set in dystopian LA, following Deckard (Harrison Ford) as he kills out of control 'replicants' - beings which look exactly like humans but are in fact manufactured. It has been recognised as a landmark in postmodern cinema due to, amongst other things, its unique bricolage of styles and extensive use of pastiche. For example, Deckard's apartment is constructed of an array of architectural designs and styles that are simultaneously futuristic and historical, and the city of LA has been heavily influenced by Japanese iconography. The film itself is a hybrid of science-fiction and film noir, making it postmodern in its essence. Another feature of postmodernism that is displayed by Blade Runner is the product placement of companies such as Coca-Cola, Atari, Pan Am, and The Bell System that is so overtly seen in the city. The confusion over time and space is also characteristic of postmodernism, as the replicants only live for four years it could be said that they live "a disconnected temporality" (Bruno, 1990) and the film presents the idea of accelerated change and consumption of time. Additionally, the pastiche used and the way in which the dystopian LA is both futuristic and retro creates an ambiguous setting in terms of time. This ambiguity is also present in the character of Deckard as he is never confirmed as either human or replicant. It has been said by Scott that he considered him to be a replicant, but Philip K. Dick, author of the book the film was based on, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, and Ford have stated that they both thought of Deckard as a human. Hence it is merely a matter of perspective or interpretation, and this relativist way of thinking is inherent in the postmodern ideology.
The trend of postmodern film was still present in the 1990s, though it had a different twist. '90s postmodernism is perhaps best depicted in Scream, which is a pastiche of the slasher movie genre. The film became a franchise with the release of three sequels, the most recent of which being released in 2011. All four Scream films can be considered postmodern due to the theme of self-referentiality. For example, the very concept of the films acknowledges the fact that the audience have seen - and thus know the conventions of - horror movies such as Psycho (Alfred Hitchcock, 1960) and Halloween (John Carpenter, 1978). By doing this the films are inviting the audience to comment on the predictability of the genre; in Scream 4 a character even comments on how the postmodern pastiche of the slasher movie has been done before, and there are films released within the films that are based on the storyline of the 'real life' Woodsboro murders. Perhaps one of the most self-reflective parts of the film is the character of Randy (Jamie Kennedy), a horror film enthusiast who is obsessed with the 'rules' of surviving a horror movie. His explanation of these - do not answer the phone, do not have sex, do not leave the room stating "I'll be right back" - whilst watching Halloween also links to another postmodern element: intertextuality. This is enforced by the trivia questions that Casey Becker (Drew Barrymore) must answer whilst being tortured by the killer 'Ghostface', during which she says of the Nightmare on Elm Street films, "the first one was good and the rest sucked," an opinion which is ironically held by many regarding the Scream films. Some other examples of pastiche of horror conventions in the saga include: iconography od knives and masks, the concept of the 'final girl' (the stereotypical, usually virginal - though not in Scream - who survives at the end of a horror film), the isolated houses and settings, the equilibrium-disruption-new equilibrium narrative structure of Todorov, and the use of teenage characters.
As we live in a postmodern condition, elements of the theory are still saturated in the media today, and not just in films. Flight of the Conchords is a sitcom television series created by HBO that follows the lives of real-life band 'Flight of the Conchords', Bret McKenzie and Jemaine Clement, who play fictionalised versions of themselves called Bret McClegnie and Jemaine Clemaine. This is in itself postmodern as it is an example of self-referencing and the blurring of boundaries between what is real and what is fake - what Jean Baudrillard called 'hyperreality'. The characters also use direct address when they break into song or perform music videos, breaking 'the fourth wall'. Specifically the episode 'Bowie' (series one, episode six) is a perfect example of postmodernism existing today. In it Bret is visited by visions of 'David Bowie' (who is actually Jemaine dressed as David Bowie) offering him advice on his image issues. This also exhibits self-referentiality as Bret refers to 'David Bowie' as 'Jemaine'. In addition this obviously presents the postmodern theme of surrealism, which can also be seen through the 'cut-and-paste' style animation of the opening sequence where everyday objects such as mugs dance to the theme tune; the music video sequences interspersed with standard sitcom humour; the hybrid of genres that the show consists of (comedy, structured reality, musical series). This bizarre surrealist style of comedy links to the concept of 'style over substance', another postmodern ideal, as there is a heavy focus on the visual style of the programme rather than the plot lines, which remain simple. For example in 'Bowie', the narrative is simply that Bret loses confidence but regains it when David Bowie visits him in a dream and the band win a deal with a musical card company. However, what the episode may lack in plot lines it makes up for in the eccentric dream sequences and music video 'Bowie's in Space'. Flight displays pastiche as some episodes are based on specific musical styles or celebrities, in this case David Bowie.
Bret McKenzie's postmodern style of humour can also be seen in the 2011 film The Muppets, starring Jason Segel and Amy Adams, for which he was music supervisor and writer of some of the songs, including the Academy Award-winning 'Man or Muppet'. Elements of postmodernism in The Muppets include pastiche of musical genres (as seen in 'Man or Muppet'), style over substance, recycling of old ideas, extensive self referencing and ironic sense of humour (such as the Muppets tribute band called 'The Moopets', which features legendary musician Dave Grohl as Animal, the drummer).
Another example of recent postmodern media could be the work of Lady Gaga, especially her music videos for 'Marry the Night' (2012) and 'Telephone'. For example, there is extensive use of pastiche and intertextuality, particularly to the films of Quentin Tarantino, e.g. the 'Pussy Wagon' is taken directly from Tarantino's Kill Bill franchise (2003, 2004), the red and yellow font used at the beginning of the video is remiscent of that of Jackie Brown (1997), the use of the nickname 'Honey Bee' links to the character of 'Honey Bunny' in Pulp Fiction (1994). Gaga also pastiches Michael Jackson through her shuffle dance when she escapes from prison, Wonder Woman through Beyonce's outfit, and Madonna because of her hair/make-up style at the beginning of the video. 'Telephone' also displays the postmodern condition due to the concept of consumerism and regular product placement of, amongst others, Virgin Mobile, Wonderbread, HeartBeats headphones, Chevrolet and Diet Coke. This product placement also serves as an example of self-referencing as HeartBeats are one of Gaga's merchandise items and the product placement in general gives the video a sense of self-awareness. This is enforced by the way in which she addresses the hermaphrodite rumours that were in the press at the time, the continuing narrative from 'Paparazzi', and the similar costume choices to 'Paparazzi', e.g. the Mickey Mouse sunglasses that Beyonce wears in the diner scene. Another postmodern element to this video is the appropriation of an identity-based struggle, in this case feminism. It could be argued that Gaga, Beyonce, and the female dancers are objectified as they all wear revealing outfits, there are at times close-up shots of just Beyonce's cleavage, and overall it is implied that women need to be beautiful and image-conscious due to the many costume and make-up changes. However, it could also be argued that by placing herself in an entirely female world she is empowering women and subverting the male gaze. Overall 'Telephone' suggests an incredulity towards metanarratives because, although it does consist of a sequence of events, it is difficult to find a modernist moral or message amongst the pop culture references, product placement and 'style over substance'.
Another medium which usually utilises the postmodern theory is the video game. Because of the change in relationship between the text and the audience, all video games are generically postmodern. A perfect example of a postmodern video game is Portal - and its sequel Portal 2 - which both display many of the aforementioned postmodern characteristics. It is self-referential because it draws attention to the fact that essentially all video games with a narrative boil down to taking orders from somebody else to achieve a goal. Moreover, at the end of the Portal, it overtly acknowledges that the audience only cares about "beating" the game and not the fate of the protagonist, as the player can complete the game but Chell, the protagonist, does not win, and GLaDOS, the antagonist, sings about how she is definitely still alive. Portal 2 is especially postmodern because of the use of bricolage and pastiche which are reminiscent of Blade Runner; it too is both futuristic and retro because although it is set in a futuristic science centre, it has become decayed and is overcom by nature. Hence they share the dystopian future setting. Both games can be described as postmodern due to their dark, tongue-in-cheek humour which implies a sense of self-awareness; it is a video game that knows it is only a video game. The first game even spawned the internet meme "the cake is a lie", as Chell is constantly promised cake when she finishes the tasks, and the addition of the character of Wheatley (Stephen Merchant) supplies the second game with even more sarcastic jokes.
Although it has been argued that the postmodern movement has come to an end, I believe that the above examples reflect that even today, we live in a postmodern world. The postmodern condition is inherent to contemporary media and because of the digital revolution, the future looks to be even more postmodern, with audiences gaining more control over what media is being produced. Furthermore, with the introduction of augmented reality and structured reality' TV programmes such as The Hills, The Only Way Is Essex, and Made In Chelsea, the boundaries between reality and hyperreality are blended even further.
